Peacock (Aglais io) – This butterfly is, to my mind, breathtakingly beautiful owing to the large round spots on each wing resembling a peacock feather, hence its name. These spots are red surrounded by white on the forewings and blue surrounded by white on the back wings. Peacocks are not nearly as common as they should be even though they live in temperate zones all through Europe; they appear to be localised as I have seen so few, whereas I am told they are much more common in the Var. Some of them appear very early in the year after over-wintering in hollow trees or old wooden sheds, enticed by an early warm sun to lay their eggs – I have spotted one as early as January. They feed on Asteraceae plants and particularly buddlejas. Their larvae live on nettles, like the Red Admirals, and are easily distinguishable because they are black and very hairy.

Comma (Polygonia c-album) – I have never seen this butterfly in the Alpes Maritimes although it is found all through Europe in open woodlands and hedgerows. At one time in the 1930s it became practically extinct in Britain but by good luck it managed to survive and is now relatively common there. It is easily distinguished because of its ragged and tattered appearance, which is supposed to disguise it to look like a fallen leaf when hibernating. Its name comes from the fact that it has, on its under-wing, a white dot resembling a comma. It over-winters as a butterfly and lays its eggs in spring, usually on nettles, and the caterpillars emerge after about fifteen days when they start to munch. They feed principally on hops (maybe the reason it is so rare here is the lack of hops in our region) but they do also feed on stinging nettles and currant leaves. Commas are canny as they disguise their pupae as bird droppings in order to protect themselves from being eaten; their caterpillars, however, are very distinctive, mostly brown with orange stripes and a large black eye in a white surround. They are also very spiny.

Small Tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) – This is a striking butterfly with orange/red wings that have yellow and black spots and a row of blue dots around the rims of the wings. I have never seen one here: perhaps this is because wasps are credited with eating the pupae, and we are surrounded by wasps… The butterflies feed on brambles, scabious, knapweeds, thistles and other Asteraceae family plants, privet, thyme and of course buddlejas. This species hibernates and appears in spring to lay its eggs, normally on nettles. When the caterpillars hatch, usually from May onwards, they devour the nettles. They are black with yellow lines running along their bodies and very hairy spines. I am told that the Large Tortoiseshell is now extinct.

Small tortoiseshell, Aglais urticae, by Jörg Hempel, Wikipedia

The Graylings are a huge family of rather dull brownish butterflies. They are the commonest of all in this region and, sadly, are not very interesting to look at; this does not mean, however, that we should not try to preserve them. They are found nearly everywhere, on dry, open ground and particularly in quarries, and are very difficult to identify as so many are similar. Also their dull colouring acts as a wonderful camouflage when they are resting. The butterflies and the caterpillars feed on various grasses.

Numerous small blue butterflies also visit my garden but I am unable to identify many of them. The most common ones are Little Blues, and their many cousins; also Skippers, which are brown, and Hairstreak swhich are slightly larger and mostly brown. These little fellows all live off lavender and particularly plants of the Papilionaceae family – trefoils, broom, kidney vetches and clovers, and Verbena bonariensis; their larvae eat the same food. 

At this point I should mention two rare vagrants which are seen only occasionally in this part of the world. 

The first is Nymphalis antiopa, the Camberwell Beauty, so named because it was first seen in England in Camberwell in 1748; it is the largest of all European butterflies and sometimes lives for 12 months, which is unusually rare. It is easily distinguished by its dark red/brown wings bordered by a band of bright blue dots on a white outer edge. It is indigenous to North America, parts of Europe and Asia; here in Europe its favourite food is the grey willow (Salix cinerea) but equally birch and elm. The large larvae are black with long black spines and red spots, very handsome and easily recognisable. They eat much the same as the parents but also search out flowers with nectar. The butterflies lay their eggs in March and April; the caterpillars appear in May and June and the butterflies emerge in June until the following April, hibernating during the winter months. The Camberwell Beauty is a rare creature and has not been seen in some departments of France since 1980 although it has been spotted in forests on this coast and also in the Haute Savoie, usually in spring as it likes to eat the willow and other catkins. This butterfly is protected in the Valais department of Switzerland and also in Greece.

The second rare vagrant is Charaxes jasius, the Two Tailed Pasha. This is a stunningly beautiful butterfly which I have seen only once. It comes from Africa but has also colonised itself along all the borders of the Mediterranean: Spain, Portugal, Italy, France and the Balkans up to 500/1000 metres. The butterfly is brown and orange and each under-wing has blue and white spots and two tails, hence its name.  Surprisingly the undersides are as colourful, with orange, brown and white lines on them. Its favourite food is Arbutus unedo, the strawberry tree, on which it lays its eggs; the caterpillars, when they emerge, eat the leaves. It can also be attracted by rotting bananas or anything sweet and simply cannot resist a glass of beer. The larvae are a very distinctive green with two large yellowish spots and four backwards-bending spikes on the head though they are not known for alcoholism… They over-winter in this form and emerge in the spring. There are usually two generations in a year, the first in May to June and the second in August and September.

Finally, I want to include a charming and endearing little creature – the Hummingbird Hawk Moth (Macroglossum stellatarum). This wonderful moth gets its name from the way in takes nectar out of flowers, drumming its little wings for all the world like a hummingbird. The wings are brown touched with orange and the moth is widespread in southern Europe. It over-winters in holes in rocks, trees or old buildings and is seen even in winter if the weather is mellow. It eats Galium, or bedstraws, also jasmine, buddleja, tobacco, lilac, verbenas and echiums, and does a wonderful job as a pollinator. The larvae are green with two grey and cream stripes and have a little horn at the end of their bodies. These eat bedstraw and other plants of the Rubiaceae family, particularly valerians.

I have only included the principal butterflies in this region of the Alpes Maritimes – doubtless there are hundreds of others. But one can see from what I’ve noted above that in order to encourage butterflies we should all plant nettles! Not the most charming or prepossessing of plants, I admit, but perhaps we should try to find a small corner for them in our gardens in order to entice our flying friends. Several other plants favoured by butterflies are the red and white valerian, Sedum spectabile, echiums and heliotrope. The red variety of valerian grows out of rocks and crevices in my garden and always attracts a large number of butterflies, usually Cabbage Whites, Painted Ladies and the Hummingbird Hawk Moth. The plants grow straggly after flowering and I cut them down to encourage a second flowering in August and September, which, along with the sedums which flower late into the autumn, is beneficial to the second brood of butterflies, such as the Red Admirals. Heliotrope is not much seen in the Alpes Maritimes but grows well in tubs on a terrace; commonly known as “Cherry Pie”, it exudes a marvellous scent which, I am told, acts as an aphrodisiac for butterflies – I dare say for humans as well!

Butterflies naturally enjoy many other garden flowers, particularly buddlejas (often called “the butterfly bush”), lavender, all types of the daisy family and lantanas, which sadly will not grow for me. Last year, near the coast, I saw bushes of this plant simply covered with Painted Ladies. The good news is that one can now find packets of flower seeds chosen especially for their attractiveness to butterflies. The internet – as ever – is a growing resource of information on local butterfly gardening.

Tortoise Gardens
by Caroline Harbouri, reprinted from TMG 1, Summer 1995
Photographs as attributed

Much has been written about ‘wildlife gardening’ in temperate climates, yet I have never come across anything about that age-old animal of Mediterranean regions, the tortoise. If gardening necessarily involves a never-ending series of compromises between one’s ideal vision and the realities of soil and climate, gardens inhabited by tortoises require some further readjustments in planning and planting.

Three species of land tortoises live in the European Mediterranean countries: the marginated tortoise (Testudo marginata), found only in Greece and Sardinia, Hermann’s tortoise (Testudo hermanni) and the Greek or spur-thighed tortoise (Testudo graeca) which, confusingly, has a very limited distribution in Greece.

(Added to these are two species of pond tortoise, Mauremys caspica and Emys orbicularis, which I shall not discuss here). All three species of land tortoises are great wanderers, and may therefore be found as visitors in unwalled country gardens. I use the word ‘unwalled’ rather than ‘unfenced’ advisedly, since tortoises climb, dig and scramble determinedly and are thus not easily kept out – or in – by anything except the strongest fence set in concrete or a well-built wall.  Not every gardener is as tolerant as Gilbert White, who noted objectively that his tortoise Timothy “devours kidney-beans & cucumbers in a most voracious manner” and “picks out the heart and stems of Coss lettuce, holding the outer leaves back with his feet”. So if your garden consists mainly of tender vegetables or delicate-leaved annual plants – sweet peas, pansies, petunias and so on – then you are unlikely to want any tortoises in your area to visit it and will probably already have constructed a solid barrier.

Thus the first compromise to be made in a tortoise garden is the selection of plants. One way of not losing plants to tortoises, of course, would be to grow only those that they will not eat – most grey-leaved or felted plants, for example, or those with highly aromatic leaves like marigolds (Tagetes, not Calendula which they love). But in this case visiting tortoises would soon depart, and permanent resident tortoises would begin to starve. Another solution is to grow plants which tortoises eat but which are so profuse and self-seed so rampantly that one never risks losing them; examples of these are common valerian (Centranthus ruber), Acanthus mollis and Cerinthe retorta. Tortoises also enjoy a lot of the wild plants commonly considered as weeds in the garden: dandelions, clover, mallow and stinging nettles. They are very fond of that invasive pest, the Russian vine (Fallopia baldschuanica,syn. Polygonum baldschuanicum); pulling off great armfuls of it to feed to tortoises is a useful way of keeping it under control. They make short work, too, of Oxalis pes-caprae, which most gardeners that I know would consider a great point in their favour.

But what about the plants that you value but that tempt tortoises? A full-grown marginated tortoise – the largest of the European species – has a reach of about eight inches, so anything taller than this which has a tortoise-proof woody stem is safe. Plants whose stems are juicy and succulent can be individually protected with discreet wire mesh, while smaller plants – those petunias whose evening scent you do not want to be deprived of – can be grown in containers.

Tortoises, however, not only eat plants; they also trample on them and occasionally dig them up. I lost a very precious newly established cutting of Teucrium polium when it was uprooted by a female tortoise digging a hole to lay her eggs in; by the time I discovered it the plant had lain in the sun all day and was past resuscitation. Here the gardener’s compromises must be two-fold, aiming at prevention and distraction. Prevention takes the form of strategically placed rocks, stones, bricks or anything else; it is not that a tortoise cannot climb over them to trample your clumps of narcissi or crocuses, but that it will not do so ‘by mistake’ – if the plant thus protected is not a tempting food item the tortoise will tend to make a detour round the barrier rather than march straight over it. Distraction involves, for example, leaving a few bare patches of loose, soft sandy soil in sunny places where the females may easily dig and lay their eggs, or providing a supplementary food supply. Much of what might otherwise have gone on the compost heap in the form of fruit and vegetable peelings is welcomed by tortoises; in return, they provide surprisingly copious droppings to be composted.

So far I have been taking the gardener’s point of view. If tortoises visit your garden, however, and even more so if captive tortoises live permanently enclosed in your garden, it is important to consider their needs too.

First, safety. Land tortoises cannot swim and will drown if they fall into a garden pond or swimming pool; thus any pond except one with the most gently sloping of sides should be surrounded with a tortoise-proof barrier. Tortoises are frequently killed on roads, so should not be kept or encouraged in gardens where there is a danger that they might stray on to busy roads. Although adult tortoises have few if any natural predators – if one discounts the story of Aeschylus being killed by an eagle dropping a tortoise on his head – some dogs pester them or turn them upside down (whereupon they are doomed, as they cannot right themselves) and some cats prey on hatchling tortoises.  Other cats and dogs ignore them entirely.

Second, living conditions. Although a pond is a danger, and although they drink sparingly, in the hot weather tortoises need access to water and seem to enjoy sitting in it. A large shallow container which they can easily climb into and out of, like a flower pot saucer, is ideal. If confined to a garden that is not watered in summer, tortoises may need an extra supply of food. When ranging free, however, they are perfectly adapted to life in a dry climate. Indeed, although most books describe them as herbivorous I suspect that wild tortoises are fairly omnivorous in order to survive in their sun-baked habitats; certainly in the garden I have watched tortoises eating a dead mouse (leaving only the empty skin and tail) and the remains of snails that have been accidentally stepped on. Like all reptiles, tortoises are poikilotherms, i.e. they control their body temperature by moving into and out of the sun, and thus need shelter from the rain and shade from the sun. Both are amply provided in the garden by dense shrubs. They also need hibernation sites for the winter. Again, in a thickly planted established garden they will find these for themselves, but I also help them by piling small branches, prunings etc. in a sheltered corner and covering the pile in autumn with dead leaves and grass. A word of caution: take great care if you light a bonfire in autumn that a tortoise has not chosen your pile of material to be burnt as a comfortable hibernation site.

Third, social life. Tortoises are generally encountered singly in the wild, except when mating, and tend to turn up as garden visitors one at a time. Nevertheless, it is clearly not fair to condemn any animal to a permanently solitary existence, and thus single tortoises should not be kept confined in a walled garden. The sexing of tortoises, however, is not an easy matter, particularly in juvenile individuals, and it may be hard to establish whether a couple of tortoises in the garden are a true pair unless they are seen mating.  But if the conditions in the garden are right, adult tortoises (from about 8 years of age) will mate and reproduce freely. Mating involves much clashing of shells and loud moaning on the part of the male; the female then laboriously digs a surprisingly deep hole and lays 10 or 12 eggs, the size and shape of ping-pong balls. She covers the hole and leaves the eggs to be incubated in the warm soil for about two months. As they hatch, the walnut-sized babies scrabble their way out of the ground and are henceforth entirely independent, though obviously vulnerable to predators.

And watching the hatchlings emerge, tiny and bright-eyed, is one of the joys of tortoise gardening, which amply compensates for the occasional loss of some valued plant. As more and more of the Mediterranean tortoises’ natural habitat is built on and more and more roads are constructed, safe havens which they may visit or where they may live and breed become increasingly important. Needless to say, this does not mean that one should remove tortoises from the wild to introduce them into the garden, even where this is still legal.

Gardens for Wildlife: A California Perspective 
by Katherine Greenberg
Photographs as attributed

Creating a garden for wildlife fosters a deeper connection with the natural world, from the smallest organisms to butterflies, birds, and mammals. The best way to attract wildlife is to grow the plants that they depend on for food and shelter, which generally means growing native plants. There are many possibilities for creating beautiful and sustainable gardens with California native plants, whether you include a few appropriate species or devote an entire garden to native plants.

Creating a garden for wildlife begins with observation. It takes time to become familiar with the birds and animals that inhabit an area. Some are year-round residents, while others may visit occasionally or seasonally. Many gardens in California are fenced to keep deer out, but I have chosen not to fence our property because I enjoy watching deer wander through the garden. With a thoughtful selection, it is possible to grow a wide variety of native plants that attract wildlife and co-exist with browsing deer. Some of the animals that visit my garden are nocturnal and seldom seen, such as the occasional coyote or mountain lion.
The essential elements for attracting wildlife are water, plants for food, and places to shelter. The widest variety of these elements will attract the greatest number of species. A source of water could be as simple as a shallow basin, a depression in a boulder that collects water, a pool or a creek. Nectar, fruits, seeds, and insects are important food sources for wildlife. Tiered plantings provide habitats for a variety of birds and animals to forage and shelter at different levels, from fallen leaves at ground level to the highest branches. Cavities in trees, fallen logs and thickets also provide cover and places for birds and small animals to nest and raise their young.

Understanding the soil, exposure, rainfall, temperature range and special features of a site is the first step in planning a native garden. Plant communities can be a useful guide to plant selection because plants that are natural companions in the wild make good companions in a native garden. Grassland, coastal scrub, chaparral, oak woodland, riparian woodland and redwood forest are the major plant communities found in California, and all are represented in my garden. Some of California’s plants co-evolved with their pollinators, and incorporating them in gardens is one way to ensure their preservation as many natural habitats have been lost to development.

Late fall is the best time to plant to take advantage of cooler weather and rain. A layer of mulch will help conserve moisture and cool the soil. Once established, most natives will benefit from an occasional deep watering. Native plants generally have fewer pest problems if they are suited to the climate and conditions of the site. Natural pest controls include ladybird beetles, beneficial wasps, birds and small animals. To avoid harm to wildlife, it is best to avoid pesticides and use biological controls, if needed.

A diverse planting of native trees, shrubs, perennials, and annuals will attract wildlife to a garden throughout the year. Many hours of enjoyment will follow.

California native plants that attract butterflies 
Butterflies need a warm, sunny area protected from wind. Their preferred flower colours are pink, purple, yellow, and orange. Flat flowers and flower clusters are best for providing easy access to nectar. Butterflies drink water from damp soil or shallow pools. Host plants supply food to caterpillars, which become butterflies.
Achillea millefolium (Yarrow)
Aesculus californica (Buckeye)
Aristolochia californica (Pipe Vine)
Artemisia californica  (Sagebrush)
Asclepias spp. (Milkweeds)
Ceanothus spp. (Wild Lilacs)
Encelia spp. (Bush Sunflowers)
Eriogonum spp. (Buckwheats)
Grindelia spp. (Gumplants)
Lupinus spp. (Lupines) 
Malacothamnus spp. (Mallows) 
Mimulus spp. (Monkeyflowers)
Penstemon spp. (Penstemons)
Salvia spp. (Sages)
Solidago spp. (Goldenrods)

California native plants that attract hummingbirds 
Hummingbirds are attracted to tubular-shaped flowers, and they will reside in the garden throughout the year if provided with a continuous source of nectar.

Arctostaphylos spp. (Manzanitas)
Delphinium spp. (Larkspurs)
Epilobium canum (syn. Zauschneria californica) (California Fuchsia)
Gambelia speciosa (syn. Galvezia speciosa) (Island Snapdragon) Heuchera spp. (Coral Bells)
Mimulus spp. (Monkeyflowers)
Penstemon spp. (Penstemons)
Phacelia spp. (Phacelias)
Ribes spp. (Currants)
Salvia spp. (Sages)
Trichostema lanatum (Woolly Blue Curls)  

California native plants that attract birds and small animals 
Birds and animals are attracted to plants that produce edible fruits and seeds, including barberries, cherries, coffeeberries, currants, gooseberries, manzanitas, oaks, wild roses, salvias, toyon and California grape. Trees and shrubs provide shelter for birds and animals.

Deer-resistant plants  
Grasses, ferns, plants with aromatic foliage, and those with tough or prickly leaves are reliably deer-resistant. Some plants may need protection from deer when they are young or until they grow above the browse line. For a list of deer-resistant plants, see Growing California Native Plants, 2nd edition.

NOTE: Seed of Achillea millefolium (cultivar ‘Cerise Queen’), Delphinium requieni, Delphinium staphisagra, Grindelia robusta, Lupinus sp., Mimulus aurantiacus, Mimulus cardinalis, Penstemon sp. and many Salvia species is available from the MGS Seed Exchange. Contact Chantal Guiraud.

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